How the Spanish Colonized Guatemala

The lands of present-day Guatemala were a special case for the Spanish who conquered and colonized them. Although there was no powerful central culture to contend with, such as the Incas in Peru or the Aztecs in Mexico, Guatemala was still home to the remnants of the Maya, a mighty civilization that had risen and fallen centuries before. These remnants fought hard to preserve their culture, forcing the Spanish to come up with new techniques of pacification and control. Guatemala Before the Conquest The Maya Civilization peaked around 800 and fell into decline shortly thereafter. It was a collection of powerful city-states who warred and traded with one another, and it stretched from Southern Mexico to Belize and Honduras. The Maya were builders, astronomers, and philosophers with a rich culture. By the time the Spanish arrived, however, the Maya had degenerated into a number of small fortified kingdoms, the strongest of which were the K’iche and Kaqchikel in Central Guatemala. The Conquest of the Maya The conquest of the Maya was led by Pedro de Alvarado, one of the top lieutenants of Hernà ¡n Cortà ©s, and a veteran of the conquest of Mexico. Alvarado led fewer than 500 Spanish and a number of native Mexican allies into the region. He made an ally of the Kaqchikel and warred upon the K’iche, whom he defeated in 1524. His abuses of the Kaqchikel caused them to turn on him, and he spent until 1527 stamping out various rebellions. With the two strongest kingdoms out of the way, the other, smaller ones were isolated and destroyed as well. The Verapaz Experiment One region still held out: the cloudy, misty, north-central highlands of modern-day Guatemala. In the early 1530s, Fray Bartolomà © de Las Casas, a Dominican friar, proposed an experiment: he would pacify the natives with Christianity, not violence. Along with two other friars, Las Casas set off and did, in fact, manage to bring Christianity to the region. The place became known as Verapaz, or â€Å"true peace,† a name it carries to this day. Unfortunately, once the region was brought under Spanish control, unscrupulous colonists raided it for slaves and land, undoing just about everything Las Casas had accomplished. The Viceroyalty Period Guatemala had bad luck with provincial capitals. The first, founded in the ruined city of Iximche, had to be abandoned due to persistent native uprisings, and the second, Santiago de los Caballeros, was destroyed by a mudslide. The present-day city of Antigua was then founded, but even it suffered major earthquakes late in the colonial period. The region of Guatemala was a large and important state under the control of the Viceroy of New Spain (Mexico) until the time of independence. Encomiendas Conquistadores and governmental officials and bureaucrats were often awarded encomiendas, large tracts of land complete with native towns and villages. The Spaniards theoretically were responsible for the religious education of the natives, who in return would work the land. In reality, the encomienda system became little more than an excuse for legalized slavery, as the natives were expected to work with little reward for their efforts. By the 17th century, the encomienda system was gone, but much damage had already been done. Native Culture After the conquest, the natives were expected to give up their culture to embrace Spanish rule and Christianity. Although the Inquisition was forbidden to burn native heretics at the stake, punishments could still be very severe. In Guatemala, however, many aspects of native religion survived by going underground, and today some natives practice an odd mishmash of Catholic and traditional faith. A good example is Maximà ³n, a native spirit that was sort of Christianized and is still around today. The Colonial World Today If you’re interested in the colonization of Guatemala, there are several places you might want to visit. The Mayan ruins of Iximchà © and Zaculeu are also sites of major sieges and battles during the conquest. The city of Antigua is steeped in history, and there are many cathedrals, convents and other buildings that have survived since colonial times. The towns of Todos Santos Cuchumatà ¡n and Chichicastenango are known for their blending of Christian and native religions in their churches. You can even visit Maximà ³n in various towns, mostly in the Lake Atitlà ¡n region. It is said that he looks with favor on offerings of cigars and alcohol!

The Invention Of The Light Globe - 1149 Words

The Light Globe, since its early invention, has quickly become one of the basic essentials of the modern technological world we know of today. The multiple sources that are credited for the creation of this fundamental force have made a major breakthrough in the way we as humans perceive our society and how it works. Nowadays, we must acknowledge the basic element that is light, the agent that stimulates sight and allows visibility, and not take the invention of the light globe for granted. In this essay, I will be outlining the contributing factors such as the Inventors, When, Where and How the Light Globe was created, What problems this invention solved and the Impacts on the Economy, the people living throughout the Industrial Revolution, the Impacts on the existing industries and the long term effects of the invention of the Light Globe. There are a various range of inventors that assisted in the creation of the Light Globe. Although, many sources only worked with small aspects such as electric batteries, lamps and developed the bulbs. The first contributing inventor was Alessandro Volta, an Italian scientist, who invented the electric battery which was capable of generating flowing electricity through a circuit. The next was Humphry Davy who created the first Electric Light Globe, also known as the Arc Light, in 1809. He connected two wires to a battery and a charcoal strip which resulted in the bulb to glow. Next, was Hans Christian Oested, a Danish scientist, who madeShow MoreRelatedThe Light Globe1152 Words   |  5 PagesThe Light Globe The Light Globe, since its early invention, has quickly become one of the basic essentials of the modern technological world we know of today. The multiple sources that are credited for the creation of this fundamental force have made a major breakthrough in the way we as humans perceive our society and how it works. 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Wireless Networking Technologies Concepts

Question: Discuss about the Wireless Networking Technologies Concepts. Answer: Introduction: An amplifier is an electronic device which is used to increase the signal power. The amplifier works by taking input from the source power supply and modulate the output power to according to the shape of the input sine wave but with larger amplitude. Thus the amplifier is used to control the output signal depending on the input signal (Kazimierczuk, 2014). The working principle of the amplifier is just opposite to the attenuator, where the amplifier increases the gain of the signal but the attenuator increases the loss of the input signal. The amplifier can be of many forms either integrated with the circuit of an electronic device or a separate device. Amplification is essential to cutting edge gadgets, and it is generally utilized as a part of all electronic hardware (Sliwa et al., 2015). The amplifiers can be divided into a wide range of categories depending on its application to the electronic gadgets such as. It may be used to increase the frequency of electric signal like incr easing the audio of the stereo system, and increase the radio frequency ranging from 20 KHz to 300 GHz. It is also used to modulate the voltage signal and has application in voltage amplifier, transconductance amplifiers, current amplifiers and transresistance amplifiers (Hogervorst Huijsing, 2013). Further qualification is whether the yield is a direct or nonlinear representation of the information. Amplifiers can likewise be arranged by their physical position in the sign chain. The amplifiers that are uses in the electronic devices are of different kinds and they vary in their size and shapes also. The amplifiers are used in small devices like hearing aids and large audio amplifiers to provide power to the loudspeakers (Zhang Zhong, 2014). The amplifiers can work in analog and digital signals and can also work in series connected with other amplifiers. It depends on the output that is required and the quality of the input signal. The amplifiers are required in the radio system to increase the power of the signal and modulate the frequency according to the input signals. The catch the radio signals the amplifier constantly changes the frequency; it controls the output using a loop for the feedback. It also responds to the various frequencies without generating distortion of the waves (Hogervorst Huijsing, 2013). The amplifiers are also used for boosting the signals in the radio stations and relay the communication process. It can copy the signal with increased or decreased sine wave. RF amplifiers are used for the ranging of the radio frequency waves (Kazimierczuk, 2014). The range of the radio frequency waves lies in the electro-magnetic spectrum and the RF amplifiers are suitable to work in this spectrum. It increases the output power and sensitivity of receiver. The audio amplifiers are also used in the radio system to regenerate the frequency of the audio signals (Sliwa et al., 2015). The power amplifiers are used for this and it drives the speaker unit and the multiple amplifiers are combined together to accommodate the radio frequency. The operational amplifiers are used for processing the radio signals and it performs the mathematical and algorithmic operations. Mixer is a tool which performs the activities regarding conversion of frequency. The activity is carried out through the multiplication of both the signals. A mixer can be referred to a simple device which makes use of a diode (Punj et al., 2014). In addition to that, the complexity of the mixer can be raised for purpose of getting more affectivity. Both the differences and the sum of the frequencies can be get through beating two sign waves against each other (Campbell, 2015). Sin(w1t) * sin(w2t)= (cos[(w1-w2)t] cos[(w1+w2)t] .......... (1) Equation 1 can be referred to as the math behind a mixer. In terms of superheterodyne or superhet receiver architecture, the mixer can be considered as the crucial and complex phase of the radio frequency signal chain (Marinier et al., 2013). It permits the beneficiary to be tuned over a wide band of interest, then deciphers the coveted, discretionary got signal recurrence to a known, settled recurrence (Meystre Sargent, 2013). This permits the sign important to be proficiently handled, sifted, and demodulated. The design of the superhet is rich and basic, however genuine execution relies on upon the execution of its constituent utilitarian pieces. Sound mixer helps in demanding the sound impacts from various channels. The sound waves from different sources can be put into two channels by utilizing sound (Marinier et al., 2013). Sound mixer can utilize signal preparing for controlling wave amplitudes for every information signal. The proportion of commitment for every sign is likewise controlled by the sound mixer (Punj et al., 2014). High pass channel and low pass channel can be utilized as a radio mixer. Adequacy adjustment comprises of mixing information signal for transmission nearby a RF transporter signal. Three sorts of sign are created while adjustment process, info bearer signal, summation of data and transporter signs and distinction of them (Meystre Sargent, 2013). Single sideband balance happens when the summated and contrast signs are post handled. In twofold sideband tweak the first flag is totally or halfway expelled from the yield waveform. Side bands are generally tow types, single side band and double side band. The single side band refers to the alteration of the amplitude modulation that make us of bandwidth and transmitter strength with more efficiency (Campbell, 2015). On the other hand the double side band can be referred to the process of transmission within which frequencies generated by the am or amplitude modulation are provided space symmetrically (Ruan et al., 2016). In addition to that, the frequencies are spaced below the CF or carrier frequency along with the activity of reducing the carrier level to the lowest level (Marinier et al., 2013). The lowest level in the practical knowledge can be referred to the state of being entirely suppressed. In terms of a filter technique transmission, the single side band provide the scope of the managing the frequency spectrum with better efficiency and affectivity. The entire transmitted strength are considered by the devices as the message strength rather carrier strength but it is costly along side with it. On the other hand, the strength of transmission in the double side band is much more than single side band (Marinier et al., 2013). The cost regarding the process of filtering the side bands in the transmitter and the receiver can be reduced through the use of DSB. CDMA CDMA or Code Division Multiplexing Access is a pure digital process and is derived from the analog signals. It has the ability to spread out the bandwidth consuming lower power than the analog signal would require. The process of converting the analog signal into digital spreading is known as the DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) (Ghanim Abdullah, 2013). The voice signals are first compressed and digitized then sent to a XOR circuit serially and from there spread with a chipping signal at a very high frequency. For example, in CDMA IS-95 a 1.22 Mbps chipping signal can spread the digitized signal at the rate of 13 Kbps. It is a process used in CDMA the data is processed in the XOR circuit containing a coded chip of high frequency (Khurshid Khokhar, 2013). The result is that the digital voice signals are send using a wider bandwidth that cannot be done with any other process. The chipping signal used for the coding is extracted from a pseudorandom code originator. A unique code is assigned to each of the user of that channel. The code have the capability of spreading the voice signals over 1.25 MHZ bandwidth (Ghanim Abdullah, 2013). The signal that is generated have low level of power and is noisy as many signals can use the same channel at that time. But the main working is done on the receiver end where a correlating circuit is used and it distinguishes the caller code from the signal and transmit it to the user (Zhang Zhong, 2014). The newly introduced 3G technology also called WCDMA (Wideband CDMA) is also based on the same technology but the chip used in WCDMA can compress the voice signals to 3.84 Mbps in a 5 MHz channel that allows multiple user to share the same bandwidth (Khurshid Khokhar, 2013). FDMA FDMA (Frequency Division Multiplexing Access) is the process where a channel or the bandwidth is broken down into multiple distinct bands. The bands are used by a single individual and the bands can accommodate a single spectrum for the transmission. The data that is transmitted through the spectrum is modulated for each of the carrier bands and are mixed linearly for transmission (Zhang Zhong, 2014). The best example of FDMA is the cable TV transmission where a single code coaxial cable is use for transmitting hundreds of channels (Reddy et al., 2015). The bandwidth of the coaxial cable ranges from 4 MHz to 1 GHz and for the transmission the bandwidths are divided into 6 MHz channels. Thus different Tv channels using different bands can be transmitted over the cable. The same technique is followed for the communication using fibre optics. An optical fibre cable has a huge bandwidth and it can be sub divided to provide FDMA (Ghanim Abdullah, 2013). The Frequency division Multiplexi ng Access technique was used in the analog telephone systems and it used a hierarchy of multiplexing process to accommodate multiple telephone calls in a line. As the FDMA uses separate bandwidth for the transmission of the signals it is more secure than the CDMA, there is no possibility for disruption of the transmitted signal in FDMA whereas the signals may get disrupted when sent through the coded chip in CDMA. But the CDMA is more stable than the FDMA and has wider application in practical life. References Campbell, R. (2015, May). HF-VHF-UHF IQ mixer with a single SPDT switch. In 2015 IEEE MTT-S International Microwave Symposium (pp. 1-4). IEEE. Ghanim, M. F., Abdullah, M. F. L. (2013). Wireless broadband access technologies. LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing. Hogervorst, R., Huijsing, J. (2013).Design of low-voltage, low-power operational amplifier cells(Vol. 374). Springer Science Business Media. Kazimierczuk, M. K. (2014).RF power amplifier. John Wiley Sons. Khurshid, K., Khokhar, I. A. (2013, August). Comparison survey of 4G competitors (OFDMA, MC CDMA, UWB, IDMA). InAerospace Science Engineering (ICASE), 2013 International Conference on(pp. 1-7). IEEE. Marinier, P., Lee, M. I., Haghighat, A., Nazar, S. N., Zhang, G., Rudolf, M. (2013). U.S. Patent Application No. 13/370,851. Meystre, P., Sargent, M. (2013). Elements of quantum optics. Springer Science Business Media. Punj, A., Hill, P. D., Huber, R. E. (2014).U.S. Patent No. 8,634,530. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. Reddy, S., Panchal, A., Patil, B. P. (2015, February). Wired network services in mobile phones. In Electronics and Communication Systems (ICECS), 2015 2nd International Conference on (pp. 378-381). IEEE. Ruan, S., Guo, C., Du, C., Ouyang, D., Lin, H., Liu, W. (2016).All-fiber laser frequency mixer and frequency-mixing fiber laser thereof. U.S. Patent Application 15/058,194. Sliwa, K. M., Hatridge, M., Narla, A., Shankar, S., Frunzio, L., Schoelkopf, R. J., Devoret, M. H. (2015). Reconfigurable Josephson Circulator/Directional Amplifier.Physical Review X,5(4), 041020. Zhang, Z., Zhong, M. (2014).U.S. Patent Application No. 14/581,727.